I never know if I should leave this unit in as it overlaps so heavily with the expertise of my colleague Prof. Sowers and the materials he teaches in some of his awesome classes. So for instance we don’t talk about magic a great deal in this class as there are opportunities to learn about that material in more depth from him. I hope this unit doesn’t feel stale for those of you who have taken his classes, and might inspire you to check out his offerings in future semesters. Also as this is not my area of specialty I had lots of help from my colleagues on twitter (thread). Also a shout out to Prof. Ellen Muehlberger for help on Perpetua!
Sexual abstinence was not unique to Christianity in the ancient world and certainly not for women in religious contexts, that said there was no prevalent movement (to my knowledge!) towards life-long abstinence more generally in most ancient Mediterranean religions.
Lucan on the Delphic Oracle, First Century CE
Scared at last, the virgo took refuge by the tripods. . . . At last Apollo mastered the breast of the Delphian priestess; as fully as ever in the past, he forced his way into her body, driving out her former thoughts, and bidding her human nature to come forth and leave her heart at his disposal. Frantic as she careens about the cave, with her neck under possession . . . she boils over with fierce fire, while enduring the wrath of Phoebus . . . first the wild frenzy overflowed through her foaming lips; she groaned and uttered loud inarticulate cries with panting breath, next a dismal wailing filled the vast cave; and at last, when she was mastered, came the sound of articulate speech . . . then Apollo closed up her throat.
Translation from Foskett, Mary F. Virgin Conceived : Mary & Classical Representations of Virginity. Bloomington, IN, USA: Indiana University Press, 2002. p 37-38.
Plutarch on an Oracular Death, Second Century CE
We know of the case of the priestess who died not so long ago [c. mid 2nd cent CE]: As it happened, a deputation from abroad had arrived to consult the oracle. The victim, it is said, remained unmoved and unaffected in any way by the first libations; but the priests, in their eagerness to please, went far beyond their wonted usage, and only after the victim had been subjected to a deluge and nearly drowned did it at last give in. What, then, was the result touching the priestess? She went down into the oracle unwillingly, they say, and half-heartedly; and at her first responses it was at once plain from the harshness of her voice that she was not responding properly; she was like a labouring ship and was filled with a mighty and baleful spirit. Finally she became hysterical and with a frightful shriek rushed towards the exit and threw herself down, with the result that not only the members of the deputation fled, but also the oracle-interpreter Nicander and those holy men that were present. However, after a little, they went in and took her up, still conscious; and she lived on for a few days. It is for these reasons that they guard the chastity of the priestess, and keep her life free from all association and contact with strangers, and take the omens before the oracle, thinking that it is clear to the god when she has the temperament and disposition suitable to submit to the inspiration without harm to herself. The power of the spirit does not affect all persons nor the same persons always in the same way, but it only supplies an enkindling and an inception, as has been said, for them that are in a proper state to be affected and to undergo the change.
The most famous ‘virgins’ from Antiquity were the Vestal Virgins. Often students present on this topic (when we’re not meeting online) and thus I do not typically include them in my own lesson plans. So just to give the basics:
1) they were selected only from elite families at a very young age (4-7); 2) they lived in house attached to the round temple of Vesta in the Forum (center of the city) and took an active role in civic affairs and had special privileges; 3) they kept the scared fire burning, if it went out it was a sign on of them had sexual intercourse; 4) Vestals convicted of breaking their vow of chastity were buried in a tomb alive with a lamp and one meal outside the city; 5) after 30 years service was over and they were free to marry. (We don’t seem to know how common this was…) 6) They were supposed to embody the Roman virtues of pudicitia and modestia (kinda, sorta: modesty and self restraint).
The story of Postumia well illustrates this (set in the 5th cent. BCE but told by much later authors as a classic example).
Plutarch’s Version, Second Century CE
Postumia’s ready laughter and overbold talk in men’s company put her under unjust suspicion, that she was tried for unchastity. She was found innocent of the charge, but in dismissing her the Pontifex Maximus, Spurius Minucius, reminded her that the language she used should have no less dignity than her life.
Livy’s Version, First Century CE
In this same year Postumia, a Vestal virgin, had to answer a charge of unchastity. Though innocent, she had given grounds for suspicion through her gay attire and unmaidenly freedom of manner. After she had been remanded and finally acquitted, the Pontifex Maximus, in the name of the whole college of priests, ordered her to abstain from frivolity and to study sanctity rather than smartness in her appearance.
In this same year Postumia, a Vestal virgin, had to answer a charge of unchastity. Though innocent, she had given grounds for suspicion through her gay attire and unmaidenly freedom of manner. After she had been remanded and finally acquitted, the Pontifex Maximus, in the name of the whole college of priests, ordered her to abstain from frivolity and to study sanctity rather than smartness in her appearance.
If you would like to read more about the Vestals there is a bibliography is given at the end of this page, just scroll to the bottom.
Our first reading for annotation is about a woman named Thecla living in Roman Asia Minor who is said to have become a follower of Paul of Tarsus (formerly Saul). Notice that in this sourcebook the translator and compiler, Kraemer, does an admirable job of distinguishing from what is his commentary (secondary literature) and what is the actual ancient text (primary evidence). What techniques does he use? Also look out for a guy named Tertullian, a prolific early Christian writer, in Kraemer’s discussion.
An ebook is a also available through college library if this PDF proves difficult on the eyes:
Tertullian is an interesting writer, famously strict in his moralizing. He lived at the end of the second century and beginning of the third century in Carthage, so two generations at least before Augustine who surpassed him as the leading Latin Christian writer.
Our final reading (FOR THE WHOLE COURSE!) is the (alleged) diary of a twenty-two year old woman, Vibia Perpetua, who wrote while in prison awaiting execution by being thrown to the beasts in the arena. She is one of our most famous female “voices” from antiquity, although some believe her identity has been appropriated by a late writer. She is also an exact contemporary in the same city as Tertullian, given the size of the Christian community it is nearly impossible to imagine they didn’t know each other, although he mentions her in passing. As you read this account think about how it reflects on gender fluidity and also along the gender binary. What do men do? What do women do? What happens when actions do not match gender?
“‘And I Became a Man’: Gender Fluidity and Closure in Perpetua’s Prison Narrative.” In Roman Literature, Gender and Reception, 163–175. Routledge, 2013. – NOT ASSIGNED linked only for reference.
Dating discussion by Kraemer along mention (of minimal) Tertullian connection:
Vestal Bibliography
DiLuzio, Meghan J. A Place at the Altar : Priestesses in Republican Rome Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2016. (physical copy, not ebook) Chapters 4-7 are particularly relevant.
Greenfield, P. N. 2011. Virgin Territory – The Vestals and the Transition from Republic to Principate (unpublished PhD thesis, v rich in detail!)
Also check the work of Celia Shultz, Katariina Mustakallio, Robin Wildfang, and Mary Beard! Notice that Beard’s thinking evolves over time.
Outi Sihvonen (unpublished PhD thesis, v rich in detail!) link forthcoming – if not here and you’re working on this topic email me!
Gender & Sexuality 